Abstract
Blockchain provides secure and decentralized data storage. Normal blockchains permanently store data. Mutable blockchains allow users to change data, but this reduces tamper resistance. This paper tests both methods in PaB-PIF, a hybrid architecture for IoT-Fog networks. Our design uses an immutable mainchain in the cloud layer and mutable sidechains in the fog layer. We analyze throughput, latency, and tamper resistance using math models and simulations. Results show that blockchain greatly improves network security. Without blockchain, the network has zero tamper resistance. The mutable blockchain in the fog layer has a tamper resistance of 0.58. The immutable blockchain in the cloud layer reaches 0.99. However, this extra security increases latency and reduces throughput. The mutable blockchain has lower latency, so it is a good fit for the fog layer. The immutable blockchain provides maximum security, which is best for the cloud layer. This trade-off works well for IoT systems like the Internet of Vehicles, where data integrity and legal rules are essential. We also compare PaB-PIF with an IoT-Fog network that has no blockchain.
Keywords
blockchain, immutability, IoT-Fog networks, mutability, performance evaluation
DOI Link
Publication Date
2026-01-01
Publication Title
Applied Sciences (Switzerland)
Volume
16
Issue
17
Deposit Date
2026-09-24
Funding
This work is partially funded by European Union–Next Generation EU–PNRR–Missione 4, Componente 2, Investimento 1.1–Bando PRIN 2022 PNRR–Decreto Direttoriale n. 1409 del 14-09-2022–Progetto PaB-PIF, CUP J53D2301493, project id. P20227W8ZC.
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Additional Links
Recommended Citation
Scarpa, M., Sadeghzadeh, M., Javanmardi, S., Pahlevanzadeh, B., & Iacono, M. (2026) 'PaB-PIF: A Hybrid Architecture to Evaluate Mutable and Immutable Blockchains in IoT–Fog Networks', Applied Sciences (Switzerland), 16(17). Available at: 10.3390/app16178493